Latin and English literacy development
The case for Latin language study in schools
Numerous studies and practical school-based projects over the past 25 years in the UK and the US have pointed to the significant educational benefits that can derive from Latin language study in primary and secondary schools. These benefits can be briefly summarised as follows:
English language literacy: the study of Latin improves students’ knowledge of English vocabulary and grammar. This is the area in which the greatest benefits have been observed, and with which this paper is primarily concerned.
Modern foreign languages: the study of Latin facilitates the learning of modern foreign languages, particularly those derived from Latin (eg. Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Romanian). The increased grammatical metalinguistic and analysis skills provided by Latin study can be applied to almost any language.
Cognitive skills: the study of Latin strengthens general cognitive skills, which are transferable to mathematical and other logical thinking tasks across the curriculum.
General humanities: General knowledge in areas including history, geography, social and cultural studies, philosophy and religion can be greatly enhanced by perspectives drawn from the study of Latin in classical antiquity and the medieval era.
The evidence from academia
A meta-study by Bracke & Bradshaw (2017) reviewed data from 50 tests conducted over a century in the US, in order to determine the impact of Latin instruction on student educational outcomes. They concluded that evidence for a positive impact of learning Latin on the L1 development of English native speakers was clear, both at primary and secondary levels. The authors quote the example of Masciantonio (1977), who documented a Philadelphia study in which 4,000 primary school students were given twenty minutes of Latin instruction per day for one year, using a “multisensory” approach. Subsequent vocabulary testing indicated that their performance was one full year higher than that of the control group. Sussman (1978) documented a similar program in Washington D.C. high schools, where students who had studied one year of Latin were tested against two control groups, one without a foreign language and one with four years of French or Spanish. The Latin instruction was “based on modern linguistic theory and typified by the oral-aural approach with special attention paid to word derivations and cultural background” (Sussman 1978:346). Subsequent testing indicated that the English reading scores of the Latin pupils were significantly higher than those of the control groups.
Bracke & Bradshaw made an important observation regarding Latin instruction in schools, which was corroborated by evidence from the UK, namely that while Latin instruction clearly improved English L1 literacy for most students, a large proportion of the tests reviewed indicated that the positive impact was greater in socio-economically deprived areas than in average and affluent areas. In UK public primary schools, a sustained revival of Latin instruction over the past decade has seen the language overtake Chinese and German to become the fourth most widely taught language in the country (Woolcock 2023). While traditionally considered an “elitist” subject typical of exclusive private schools, the positive effects of Latin study on literacy in the UK have also been particularly evident in public schools at the opposite end of the socio-economic scale, where students are more likely to struggle with English language and literacy. Indeed, it has even been suggested that Latin could be used as an effective intervention strategy for learners performing below age-related expectations in literacy, and possibly also for fast-tracking L2 English learners towards mastery of that language.
Recent practical evidence
A range of innovative projects supporting Latin language education have been trialled in UK public schools over the past decade. The organisations involved are often structured as charities and operate in conjunction with government and academic support. Most were set up following primary school curriculum reforms implemented in the UK from September 2014 which enabled the study of Classical Greek and Latin by pupils aged 6-11.
Classics for All is a national charity which funds UK state schools to widen access to the study of Classical subjects. The charity has set up a number of regional hubs, to bring together primary schools, secondary schools, and Classics academics to share knowledge and expertise. Classics For All works closely with projects such as Maximum Classics, the Primary Latin Project and Minimus to provide teaching materials and training for UK state schools.
The Classics in Communities project was a partnership between the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge and the Iris Project. The project targeted schools which may not have otherwise considered classics as an option, and had two basic aims: (1) to provide primary school teachers with the skills and knowledge necessary to teach these languages, and (2) to conduct parallel research to determine the impact of Classical language learning on children’s cognitive development. The current status of this project is unclear, but the Iris Project appears to be alive and well.
The Iris Project is an educational charity which was started in 2006 by Dr Lorna Robinson in order to bring Classical languages and culture to inner city state schools and communities. The project began by offering a magazine, Iris, free for state schools along with lunchtime and weekend classes, and soon expanded across London and Oxford to many state schools as a part of the broader literacy curriculum.
The Latin Programme is an educational charity that promotes literacy through the teaching of Latin in London state primary schools. The program’s specialist peripatetic teachers deliver instruction to mixed-ability, whole-class groups using the Via Facilis curriculum, and in 2018-19 reached 1,036 students across 37 classes. The program embraces a social enterprise model and functions more like a start-up than a traditional school, and is known for implementing innovative programs with proven results. The express aim is to assist students to “attain higher literacy levels and thereby improve their life chances”, since “learning Latin dramatically broadens students’ vocabulary while deepening their understanding of English grammar” (Wing-Davey 2018:117). Further, the program seeks to “dismantle the fallacy that Latin and Classics are subjects only suitable for higher-level ability groups and the privileged elite … [and] to deconstruct the imposing and daunting grandeur of Classics” (Wing-Davey 2018:123).
Why Latin?
There are solid linguistic reasons for the success of Latin as an English language literacy intervention in schools:
Graphophonics: Latin is an accessible language for beginners, as the alphabet and associated phonemes (sounds) are almost identical to those of English, and the phonic system has one consistent sound associated with each letter.
Vocabulary: With at least 60% of all English words being of Latin origin, the study of Latin has proven to be of great benefit in building vocabulary and knowledge of English morphology and etymology. An improved vocabulary can enrich learning in other areas such as history, geography, science and the arts (see, for example, Morgan and Pelling, 2010; Holmes-Henderson, Hunt and Musié, 2018; Imrie, 2019; Taylor, 2020).
Grammar: Latin is an inflected language, meaning that the grammatical roles of words in a sentence (“who did what to whom”) are indicated by their endings rather than by word order as in English. This encourages analytic grammatical thinking whereby learners must make judgments about the role, grouping and meaning of words within a sentence (Holmes-Henderson & Tempest 2018:232-3). In classroom environments where relatively little explicit English grammar instruction may take place, grammar analytic skills learnt in Latin and transferred to English can be of great benefit.
To consider an Australian example, in 2023 the South Australian Department for Education published an excellent resource for teaching spelling and morphology to primary school students in years 3 to 6 . As the authors note, an understanding of “the etymology of words … provides additional information that can support correct spelling”, and “morphology is a powerful teaching tool for building vocabulary knowledge and spelling mastery” (Department for Education 2023:5-6). Etymologically, we know that at least 60% of all English words are of Latin and Greek origin, rising to 90% in the sciences and technology. In terms of morphology, the resource provides a comprehensive listing of the morphemes used in English word formation, almost all of which are of Latin or Greek origin, apart from a handful of Anglo-Saxon examples. The usefulness of even a basic knowledge of Latin morphology in supporting English literacy is quite clear.
Challenges and solutions
Latin study has been demonstrated to have clear and measurable positive effects on English literacy development, so why is it not taught more widely in schools, and primary schools in particular? Reasons commonly offered include:
Scepticism: doubts about the value and relevance of a classical language like Latin, and difficulty in breaking down its elitist image. As has been repeatedly demonstrated, such skepticism is unfounded and mistaken. There is no doubt that Latin study improves English literacy, and that this effect is greatest for students from less affluent backgrounds.
Timetabling: curricula are crowded and available time is constrained. Where schools may not be able or willing to incorporate Latin into daily timetables, alternative options such as a before/after school or lunch-time “language club” model could be considered. See Wright (2015), Forrest (2018) and McMenamin (2022) for further information on such initiatives including Greek language clubs.
Teachers: concerns naturally exist regarding the on-going availability of teachers and the stability of programs. In some cases, concerns may also exist regarding the training of teachers to support and deliver Latin programs in relevant delivery models.
Resourcing: apart from concerns regarding teaching staff, concerns also exist regarding general resourcing in terms of policy and funding, and teaching materials and program planning.
The most significant challenge listed above is the first: changing attitudes to and understandings of Latin language study. Once scepticism is overcome and a decision has been made to proceed with a trial, a range of flexible solutions exist for the other challenges. Following the successful experience of UK public schools, it is likely that outsourcing delivery to a third party Latin program service provider would be the most convenient approach for most schools. Having agreed on goals, a delivery model and a timetable structure, such a provider is then responsible for delivering the teachers, planning and teaching resources required for program success, minimising demands on school staff and resources.
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References
Bracke, E. (2023). Teaching Latin and ancient Greek in the 21st-century primary school: Framing logical approaches to international challenges. The Journal of Classics Teaching (2023), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631023000636 (accessed 19/12/2023).
Bracke, E. & Bradshaw, C. (2017). The impact of learning Latin on school pupils: a review of existing data. The Language Learning Journal, 48, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2017.1400578 (accessed 19/12/2023).
Department for Education (2023). Spelling and morphology scope and sequence: years 3 to 6. Government of South Australia.
Forrest, B. (2018). An After-School Classics Club can Boost Enthusiasm for Learning. Teachwire, 21 May 2018. Available online: https://www.teachwire.net/news/an-after-school-classics-club-can-boost-enthusiasm-for-learning (accessed 14/05/2023).
Holmes-Henderson, A. & Kelly, K. (2022). Ancient languages in primary schools in England: A Literature Review. Department for Education (UK). Available online: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ancient-languages-in-primary-schools-in-england (accessed 14/05/2023).
Holmes-Henderson, A. & Tempest, K. (2018). Classics and Twenty-First-Century Skills. In A. Holmes-Henderson, S. Hunt and M. Musié (Eds.), Forward With Classics: Classical Languages in Schools and Communities (pp 231-242). London: Bloomsbury.
Masciantonio, R. (1977). Tangible benefits of the study of Latin: a review of research. Foreign Language Annals 10: 375-382.
McMenamin, C. (2022). Greek Club: Resurrecting Dead Languages in Secondary Schools. The Journal of Classics Teaching 23 (46), 121–123. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631022000058
McMillan, I. (2016). Transformatio Per Complexitatem: The 20th Century Transformation of Latin Teaching in the UK. The Journal of Classics Teaching 16 (32), 25-32. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631015000161
Sussman, L. (1978). The decline of basic skills: a suggestion so old that it’s new. Classical Journal 73: 351.
Thornber, J. (2021). Amo, amas, amat… and so much more than that: the Minimus Primary Latin Project – Cambridge University Museums. Available online: https://www.museums.cam.ac.uk/blog/2018/11/01/amo-amas-amat-and-so-much-more-than-that-the-minimus-primary-latin-project/ (accessed 14/05/2022).
Wing-Davey, Z. (2018). Delivering Latin in Primary Schools. In A. Holmes-Henderson, S. Hunt and M. Musié (Eds.), Forward With Classics: Classical Languages in Schools and Communities (pp 117-127). London: Bloomsbury.
Woolcock, N. (2023). Latin is now fourth most-taught language in primary schools. The Times, June 29 2023. Available online: https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/latin-language-lessons-uk-primary-schools-2023-wrqrtfj0s (accessed 16/7/2023).
Wright, A. (2015). Running a Greek Club – The Hereford Cathedral School Experience. Journal of Classics Teaching 16, 32, 21–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S205863101500015X